Considerable evidence supports the sequential two-system model of moral judgement, as proposed by Greene and others. We tested whether judgement speed and/or personal/impersonal moral dilemmas can predict the kind of moral judgements subjects make for each dilemma, and whether personal dilemmas create difficulty in moral judgements. Our results showed that neither personal/impersonal conditions nor spontaneous/thoughtful-reflection conditions were reliable predictors of utilitarian or deontological moral judgements. Yet, we found support for an alternative view, in which, when the two types of responses (...) are in conflict; the resolution of this conflict depends on both the subject and the dilemma. While thinking about this conflict, subjects sometimes change their minds in both directions, as suggested by the data from a mouse-tracking task. (shrink)

Social change does not occur in the same form and direction in every social structure. In this context, every society experiences the modernization process with its own dynamics. These dynamics started with an intervention either from the top or from outside for the countries that want to be included in the modernization process. Due to the government's modernization initiatives, many differences have been made in the individual and social structure. Because, with the changes in the powers governing the state many (...) times in the short term, the society on the way to modernization has faced a new mentality and modernization steps accordingly. However, this difference has not always been in the way the state predicted and organized it. In this sense, the society sometimes accepted the foreseen change and continued it, and sometimes showed resistance to the change. The failure to legitimize the change successfully in the eyes of the people, however, the fact that it was put to work with various sanctions caused the new norms to not be internalized among the people. The modernization movements that could not be internalized by the society were tried to be applied superficially and formally. However, as a result of the development of information opportunities over time and the convergence of the levels in the state on both political and social planes, modernization has started to take its own motivation from internal processes. Thus, an eclectic culture has emerged between the east and the west, but with its own unique motifs. Individuals who grew up in this line have also applied the patterns of the society while living their own modernization experience. These patterns formed in society have changed the emotional and embarrassment thresholds of individuals. Thus, the sense of control, which started from the outside, descended to the core while human beings were civilized. Based on this background, the aim of our study is to read through clothes, within the scope of Elias' theory of civilization, how the change brought about by Turkish modernization has changed the emotional threshold of a single person in social and individual terms. Literature review was preferred for the progress of the study. The research is limited to dress as a subject. Temporally ıt was limited to the period from the II. Mahmud period to the early Republican period. Thus, the study made inferences about today by going back to the Turkish modernization adventure, which dates back 200 years. The study has been divided into three main parts. While these sections were being presented, the topics were often associated with the "religion" theme. (shrink)

Tanrı’nın basitliği doktrini Hristiyanlık ve İslamiyet’in de dahil olduğu çeşitli dini gelenekler tarafından savunulmuş bir düşüncedir. Tanrı’nın basitliği, ana-akım yoruma göre Tanrı’nın sıfatlarının Tanrı’nın kendisiyle aynı olmasını gerekli kılar. Bu makale, Tanrı’nın basitliği doktrinine karşı yöneltilen birtakım eleştirileri inceleyip tartışmaktadır. Dikkate alınan argümanlar günümüz Batı literatüründen Alvin Plantinga’ya ve Eş‘ari gelenekten ise Abdülkāhir el-Bağdâdî ve Sa‘düddîn et-Teftâzânî’ye aittir. Bu argümanların mantıksal yapısını açığa çıkaracak şekilde yeniden inşası yapıldıktan sonra onlara karşı getirilebilecek iki önemli eleştirinin nasıl yanıtlanabileceği hakkında öneriler sunulmaktadır. Plantinga’nın (...) Tanrı’nın basitliği doktrinine karşı getirmiş olduğu eleştiri, Tanrı’nın sıfatları ile aynı kabul edilmesi durumunun yol açacağı kabul edilemez sonuçlar üzerine kuruludur. Eğer Tanrı’nın zatı ilahi sıfatlar ile aynı ise, bu durumda sıfatların hepsi zatıyla aynı olacak, bu sonuç ise sıfatların birbiriyle aynı olmasını beraberinde getirecektir. Bütün sıfatların birbiriyle aynı olması ise sadece tek bir sıfatın olması anlamına gelecektir ki bu hal Tanrı’nın kudret, bilgi vs. gibi farklı sıfatlarının inkârı demektir. Benzer bir akıl yürütmeyle, Tanrı’nın basitliği tezinin, sıfatların soyut nesneler olmasından dolayı, soyut bir nesne olduğu, dolayısıyla evreni yaratabilecek kudret ve iradeye sahip şahsi bir varlık olmadığı sonucuna da yol açtığı gösterilebilir. Olmayana ergiye (kıyâsu’l-hulf, reductio ad absurdum) dayalı bu argümanların benzerlerini Eş‘ari gelenekte de bulmaktayız. ‘Abd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī, Tanrı’nın sıfatları ile aynı kabul edilmesi durumunda sıfatların da birbirleriyle aynı kabul edilmesi gerekeceğini, bu kabulün ise ilahi ilim ve kudretin taallukatının da aynı olması sonucunu doğuracağını söyler. Ne var ki Allah’ın zatını bildiği halde kudretinin zatına taalluk etmemesi bu iki sıfatın taalluklarının aynı olmadığını, dolayısıyla ilahi basitlik tezinin yanlışlığını gösterir. Sa‘düddîn et-Teftâzânî’ye göre ise sıfatlar kendi başlarına kaim varlıklar değildir, ancak başka bir varlığa bağlı olarak var olabilirler. Eğer Tanrı sıfatlarıyla aynı kabul edilecek olursa, Tanrı’nın da benzer şekilde başkasına bağımlı bir varlık olarak kabul edilmesi gerekir. Görüldüğü üzere, her iki Eş‘ari düşünür de Plantinga’nın argümanlarına benzer şekilde olmayana ergiye dayalı bir akıl yürütme yöntemini takip ederek Tanrı’nın basitliği doktrinini eleştirmektedir. Bu argümanlar, Tanrı ve sıfatları arasında bir ayrım olduğu varsayımından hareketle kurulmuştur. Nitekim hiçbir şekilde ayrım yapılamayacak olsa ne diye sıfatların ilahi zat ile aynı olduğu tezi savunulmaya çalışılsın. Bu argümanlara getirilecek eleştirilerin de böyle bir ayrımı büsbütün reddetmeden Tanrı ve sıfatları arasındaki ayniyeti açıklayan bir modele dayanması gerekir. Bu açıdan dikkate alınabilecek en seviyeli eleştiri, Frege’nin manâ (Sinn/sense) ve gönderim/mâsadak (Bedeutung/referent) ayrımına atıfla yapılacak bir ayniyet söylemine dayanabilir. Edward Feser bu ayrıma dayalı bir basitlik tezini Aquinas’ın analojik yüklemleme teziyle de destekleyerek savunmaktadır. Fakat böyle bir savunmanın da, yakından incelendiğinde, başarılı olamadığı görülecektir. (shrink)

As a recent addition to the editorial board for the journal of Philosophy in the Contemporary World, I wanted to revisit a practice from past editions of the journal—interviewing philosophers who engage philosophical practice that reflects the mission of PCW. In this interview, a model for what I hope will continue to be a regular feature, I have a dialogue with the philosopher Burcu Gurkan. Professor Gurkan currently lives and works in Turkey while I live in work in the (...) central US, so what follows is edited from an email exchange.—Taine Duncan. (shrink)

This article examines how algorithmic accountability is translated into action at the municipal level in the United States. Based on a review of task forces, ordinances, and policy toolkits from New York City and Seattle, I demonstrate the ways municipalities and local publics operationalize abstract notions of accountability. Municipal interventions often prioritize revealing computational tools (transparency) and their effects on people (impact assessments). While these two forms of accountability are crucial, they may neglect to examine institutions—and how they change—as they (...) incorporate automated decision systems. I thus propose a political-economic approach that recognizes algorithmic systems as part of municipal institutions and focuses on their role in intensifying data collection and commodification between public agencies and markets. I argue that algorithmic accountability, especially in public agencies, needs to focus on incompetence and asymmetries of power within a network of governments, tech companies, community groups, and technologies. With a mix of transparency, impact assessments, and political economic review, the paper proposes a more comprehensive assessment of automated decision systems through their development, procurement, use, impact, and decommissioning. (shrink)

RésuméDans cet article, je propose d'explorer la structure logique de l'argument d'al-Bāqillānī en faveur de l'existence de Dieu et de montrer en quoi cet argument ne peut être rangé au sein de la classification classique des arguments de type ontologique, cosmologique et de dessein. La particularité de l'argument d'al-Bāqillānī réside dans le concept de Dieu qu'il présuppose. En me servant de l'analyse de Herbert Davidson et en critiquant l'interprétation de cet argument par Majid Fakhry, j'espère clarifier ce concept de Dieu (...) par le concept d'agent. Pour résumer, je tente de démontrer qu'al-Bāqillānī présente un type d'argument particulier que nous appellerons “l'argument cosmologique à partir de l'agent”. Je le considère cosmologique parce qu'il s'agit d'une inférence qui part de l'univers pour aboutir à l'existence de Dieu. Néanmoins, cet argument est différent de l'argument cosmologique classique car il laisse une plus grande place au concept d'agent ainsi qu’à l'idée d'un dieu personnel. (shrink)

This work investigates the possibility of iʿrâb (parsing) simple texts by utilizing simple grammar rules in the case of I’râb al-Awâmil al-mi’a. I'râb, which is the 'application of grammar on texts', is an operation of reinforcing the knowledge of grammar from one perspective, and an attempt to under-stand the text from another. Since I’râb al-Awâmil al-mi’a is the iʿrâb of al-Awâmil al-mi’a, which is a brief grammar treatise, it is clear that this iʿrâb is intended to reinforce grammar knowledge. Moreover, (...) it indicates the level of knowledge to be reinforced, as is evident from the text. We think that examining such iʿrâb works in terms of the applicability of iʿrâb, will provide data to the field of grammar teaching. The work is currently available in manuscript and consists of the object text and the author's iʿrâb. The object text of the work, al-Awâmil al-mi'a, is a textbook and the target reader of the book is beginners. It is naturally assumed that both al-Awâmil al-mi'a and its parsing were written for the same level. This work examines the validity of this assumption. In order to determine whether the rules used in the parsing are simple or complex, it was necessary to create a measure of simplicity. Three measures of simplicity have been created. If the grammatical rules used in parsing are: limited to the rules in al-Avâmil, or if they are within the frame of the main topics of grammar or if the author does not address controversial issues during the application of the iʿrâb, then they are simple rules. Moreover, in order to facilitate the achievement of our goal, we divided the sentences into simple and complex sentences, and selected our data mostly from complex sentences. We simplified complex sentences by dividing them into two types: sentences with missing elements and sentences that are semantically connected. We created a second dataset by adding some examples other than the complex sentence types. We selected the other sentence types that make up the second dataset from sentences that contain elements that al-Awāmil al-mi'a does not include. The mentioned datasets examined by utilizing the measure of simplicity that we created and the degree of complexity of the grammatical rules used in I'râb al-Awâmil al-mi'a, was revealed. (shrink)

The contributions, composed in this volume, are inspired not only by the necessity but also by the potentialities of a process which continues and deepens cross-cultural understanding, especially between Islamic and Western philosophy. Following the tradition of an East-Western symphony of thoughts, the authors focus on common horizons and while applying comparative and historical approaches, varieties of unity appear on the ways towards a New Enlightenment. The creative force, orchestrating the harmony in the web of Life, communicates in the mean (...) time with the capacities of human beings, advancing in deciphering its micro-macrocosmic dimensions. Here, the encounter of the Logos of Life Philosophy (A-T. Tymieniecka) and Islamic Philosophy open the space for constructive disputation. In the wake of the crisis of postmodern unknowability, paths towards a new critique of reason go hand in hand with fundamental issues, being reflected newly. (shrink)

Tanrı’nın varlığına dair getirilen argümanlar, başarılı kabul edildiği taktirde en az bir tanrının var olduğu gösterir. Acaba kanıtların gösterdiği özelliklere sahip başka tanrılar da var mıdır? Bu sorun, Tanrı’nın tekliği problemi olarak bilinir ve özellikle orta çağ felsefesinde detaylı olarak tartışılmıştır. İslam kelamcılarının bu bağlamda Tanrı’nın tekliğini göstermek için verdikleri en önemli argümanlardan biri de “burhân-ı temânü”dür. Burhân-ı temânünün modal versiyonuna göre, her mümkün duruma gücü yeten ve iradesinde özgür iki tanrının iradeleri mümkün bir durumda çelişkiye yol açar. Dolayısıyla bu (...) özelliklere sahip iki tanrı varsaymak problemlidir. Bu makale, bahsi geçen argümanın başarılı olduğunu kabul ederek, her mümkün duruma gücü yeten ama iradeleri zorunlu olarak aynı iki tanrının mümkün olup olmadığını tartışıyor. Bu alternatifin söz konusu olabileceği senaryoları ele alarak her bir senaryonun problemli sonuçlara yol açtığını savunuyor. Bu çerçevede kelamda “burhân-ı tevârüd” adıyla bilinen argüman da güncellenerek ele alınan tartışmaya nasıl katkıda bulunabileceğini gösteriliyor. (shrink)

This chapter examines military building activity in the region in the light of Ottoman sources preserved in the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archive in Istanbul and memoirs written by the senior bureaucrats of the Empire. It aims to assess whether the military building programme of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued in later periods in the same spirit as in the earlier time of conquests and expansion, or if the empire only supported repairs of existing strongholds. The issue was noted by (...) numerous Ottoman writers as early as the Koçi Bey Risalesi in the seventeenth century. This chapter examines four frontier areas of the Ottoman Empire: the Hapsburg borderland in Croatia; the frontier between Montenegro and southern Herzegovina; the fortress line on the banks of the Danube in Wallachia; and the Danube Delta region near the Black Sea. (shrink)

Cognitive Science, Volume 46, Issue 2, February 2022.

One of the classical arguments for the existence of God is the ontological argument. In the second half of the twentieth century, this argument was updated, and triggered new philosophical discussions under the title of “modal ontological argument.” These discussions have expanded with the emergence of the modal versions of the cosmological argument. However, despite the intense interest in arguments for the existence of God, the contemporary scholarship in the philosophy of religion largely overlooks the problem as to whether God (...) is unique or not. In this paper, I aim to update Taftazānī’s argument for the uniqueness of God by means of the conceptual tools of the possible world semantics. Taftazānī’s argument is known as burhān al-tamānu in the Islamic kalām, and aims to show that postulating two omnipotent gods will result in contradictions due to a possible conflict between the two divine wills. The term tamānu refers to the conflict between these wills. So, I argue that this argument, supplemented by the conclusion of the modal ontological or cosmological argument, shows that there is only one God. I call this extended argument “A Modal Argument for the Uniqueness of God.”. (shrink)

Introduction Ethical climate in medical contexts is referred to the organizational environment consisting of medical staff interpersonal relationships regarding patient care. This element affects staff behavior in an organization. The investigation and comparison of the effects of the interventions promoting ethical climate are among important nursing challenges that should be considered by researchers. The present study was conducted to compare the effect of nurses’ ethical decision-making skills and interpersonal communication training on their ethical climate. Materials and methods This experimental study (...) was performed on 90 nurses working in the general teaching hospitals of Mashhad, Iran. The sampling process was conducted in two stages. Nurses were divided into three groups: intervention 1, intervention 2 and control group. The intervention was separate 12-h workshops for each of the intervention groups. The ethical climate questionnaire by Victor and Cullen was used to assess the score of ethical climate in the three groups both at the beginning and 4 weeks after the workshop. The data were analyzed in Statistical Package for Social Sciences software using descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, Kruskal–Wallis, paired sample t-test, Wilcoxon test, and post hoc Tukey’s test. Ethical considerations were as follows: The study design was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects, and they were ensured about the confidentiality terms. Results The mean scores of the ethical climate test at the first stage were obtained as 66.0 ± 5.5, 67.8 ± 6.9, and 67.7 ± 7.2 in the ethical decision-making, interpersonal communication, and control groups, respectively. Accordingly, the three groups were not significantly different in terms of this variable. However, after the intervention, a significant difference was observed among the three groups regarding the mean scores of the ethical climate test In this regard, the calculated mean scores in the ethical decision-making, interpersonal communication, and control groups were 99.3 ± 6.3, 90.4 ± 7.7, and 67.4 ± 7.9, respectively. Conclusion Training workshops about ethical decision-making skills and interpersonal communication on the ethical professional climate of nurses was effective. Nonetheless, the effect of ethical decision-making skill training was found to be higher than interpersonal communication skill training. Therefore, it is recommended that nursing managers hold training workshops to improve the ethical climate for nurses. (shrink)

The Hittites who were origin of Indo-European and came to Anatolia occupied the region of Halys in central Anatolian around 1650 BC building Hattusa as a capital city. Expanding their territories into an empire they founded one of the most powerful states in their times and world. Including different ethnic groups Hittites called themselves by the expression of “1000 Gods of Hatti”. Incorporating several local gods existed in the lands they conquered they have had a lot of gods or divines. (...) Among these gods are gods of Hatti, Luwi, Pala, Sumer, Hurri, Assyro- Babilonian and ancient Indian. Many temples discovered in the Hattusa excavations are an important clue for their paying great respect to the gods. In this article benefiting from the evidences of archaeological and philological sources Hittite beliefs as a state religion and general aspects of this religion, gods in the pantheon, temples built for these gods, festivals devoted to these gods, the place of gods and humans, magic rituals, oracles, omens, prayers and mythological stories will be evaluated. (shrink)

In four experiments, we asked subjects for judgements about scenarios that pit utilitarian outcomes against deontological moral rules, for example, saving more lives vs. a rule against active killing. We measured trait emotions of anger, disgust, sympathy and empathy, asked about the same emotions after each scenario. We found that utilitarian responding to the scenarios, and higher scores on a utilitarianism scale, were correlated negatively with disgust, positively with anger, positively with specific sympathy and state sympathy, and less so with (...) general sympathy or empathy. In a fifth experiment, we asked about anger and sympathy for specific outcomes, and we found that these are consistently predictive of utilitarian responding. (shrink)

There have been many developments in the field of science and religion over the past few decades. One such development is referred to as ‘theology of nature’ (ToN), which is the activity of building or revising theological frameworks in light of contemporary scientific developments, e.g., evolution, chaos theory, and quantum mechanics. Ian Barbour, John Polkinghorne, and Arthur Peacocke, all of whom are Christian thinkers, are the most well-known advocates of this kind of thinking. However, this discourse has not been examined (...) from an Islamic perspective. Given this gap, in this article, we view this strand of thinking from the Ashʿarī school of thought that is part of the Sunnī Islamic kalām tradition. We first review how ToN manifests in the works of the thinkers mentioned earlier. Following this, we highlight the essential principles in Ashʿarism relevant to God, His interaction with the created world, and science. These are then compared with the ideas of the said thinkers. Two conclusions are reached. First, we demonstrate that atomism, which is generally understood as a long-held position in the Ashʿarī tradition, should not be held as a theological position but rather a philosophical or a scientific one. Second, an important distinction is made between science-informed theology (SIT) and contingency-informed theology (CIT). For Ashʿarīs, a CIT is sufficient for understanding God, but they would find the SIT displayed in ToN problematic. The motivation and methodology of localising or modifying God’s nature or attributes to fit the science of the day would be seen as theologically very costly and a form of scientism. (shrink)

Background Nurses provide care to meet the complex needs of patients in the increasing workload in the health system and are at risk of compassion fatigue. The concept of compassion fatigue has begun drawing attention in the last decade, as it negatively affects nurses' physical and mental health, job performance and satisfaction, and therefore patient care quality. Objectives This study was to examine compassion fatigue and predictive factors in paediatric surgery nurses. Participants and research context The study was cross-sectional, predictive (...) and quantitative. It was conducted with the 135 paediatric surgery nurses. The data were sent to the email addresses of the members via Google Survey. Research data were collected with the Nurse Information Form, Compassion Fatigue Scale, Life Satisfaction Scale and Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale. Ethical considerations After obtaining the approval of the University’s ethics committee, the study was carried out after obtaining participants’ informed written and verbal consent. Results There was a difference between the level of compassion fatigue according to the paediatric surgery unit that worked the longest and the thought of changing their profession. Burn unit nurses and nurses who were considering changing professions have higher compassion fatigue scores. When the predictors of compassion fatigue were examined, the thought of changing the nursing profession and life satisfaction were significant predictors of compassion fatigue. The thought of changing the nursing profession and life satisfaction explained 22% of compassion fatigue. The same variables and the longest working period of the paediatric surgery unit were the estimators of the level of occupational burnout; explaining 29% of occupational burnout. Conclusions Compassion fatigue, life satisfaction and perceived social support of paediatric surgery nurses are moderate. Compassion fatigue is affected by working time, the thought of changing the profession, life satisfaction and perceived social support. (shrink)

A two-systems model of moral judgment proposed by Joshua Greene holds that deontological moral judgments (those based on simple rules concerning action) are often primary and intuitive, and these intuitive judgments must be overridden by reflection in order to yield utilitarian (consequence-based) responses. For example, one dilemma asks whether it is right to push a man onto a track in order to stop a trolley that is heading for five others. Those who favor pushing, the utilitarian response, usually take longer (...) to respond than those who oppose pushing. Greene's model assumes an asymmetry between the processes leading to different responses. We consider an alternative model based on the assumption of symmetric conflict between two response tendencies. By this model, moral dilemmas differ in the "difficulty" of giving a utilitarian response and subjects differ in the "ability" (tendency) to give such responses. (We could just as easily define ability in terms of deontological responses, as the model treats the responses symmetrically.) We thus make an analogy between moral dilemmas and tests of cognitive ability, and we apply the Rasch model, developed for the latter, to estimate the ability-difficulty difference for each dilemma for each subject. We apply this approach to five data sets collected for other purposes by three of the co-authors. Response time (RT), including yes and no responses, is longest when difficulty and ability match, because the subject is indifferent between the two responses, which also have the same RT at this point. When we consider yes/no responses, RT is longest when the model predicts that the response is improbable. Subjects with low ability take longer on the "easier" dilemmas, and vice versa. (shrink)

ABSTRACT This article discusses the Celtic myths, figures, and central themes of Tomm Moore’s animated movie Song of the Sea, from a transmodern feminist perspective. While the movie offers a vivid portrayal of the dichotomy between the tranquil Irish countryside and the turbulent city of Dublin, its main theme revolves around a rural family’s lament for the loss of the mother who is a modern-day personification of the Celtic selkie. This curious female figure embodies contradictory characteristics: she is semi-human and (...) at the same time a mother and a wife who, in struggling with her in-between state, leaves her family and returns to her mythical roots. By focusing on several of the Celtic mythical figures and central themes of maternal loss, motherhood, gender relations, and family reconciliation, I attempt to show that the movie’s transmodern echoes and concerns suggest that alternative family formations and changed gender roles are possible in Irish society and in the world more generally. (shrink)

Do basic human values facilitate prosocial behaviour on a global scale? This study, for the first time, analyzes the effect of values on prosocial behaviour in the context of public support for foreign development assistance. Support for foreign development assistance is a prosocial act intended to benefit the less fortunate in developing nations. Despite a plethora of evidence showing the effect of personal values on prosocial behaviour, the literature has neglected the value origins of support for development assistance. I argue (...) that personal values play a crucial role in shaping individuals’ support for foreign development assistance. Using data from nationally representative samples covering 11 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development countries, I show that self-transcendence and openness to change values, as defined by Schwartz’ theory of values, are reliable predictors of support for foreign development assistance. By linking human values to foreign development aid, this study expands the purview of values research to the domain of global governance and opens up new avenues of interdisciplinary inquiry that apply theories of values to different dimensions of world affairs. (shrink)

Conduct of Muslim women in Turkey in the age of globelization; 20th century.

/strong>Almost all languages have included phonetics in language studies in some way. Arabic was one of the languages that had studied phonetics with more care. Phonetic studies are in general more likely to focus on qualitative articulation characteristics. Whereas either the need for an effort to produce a sound which implicit in articulation characteristics terms, or the ability of the vowels to be extended brings the relationship of sound and duration to the mind. In this work we are aiming, with (...) the help of terms that reflect the duration of articulation, to clarify the aspect of sound duration within disciplines concerned with speech sounds. From some terms used in tajwīd works especially within the section which hold the subject of preserving the scales of sounds and from other phenomena, we concluded that, at least in its practical goals, tajwīd works directed a balanced concern toward both the preservation of the quality and the quantity of speech sounds. (shrink)

Balāgha, which consists of three main branches today, has benefited from various channels in the process of completing its formation. Before the formation of systematic balāgha, it is assumed that there were two main currents, one represented by poets and lite-rati, and the other represented by scholars. This article aims to determine the place of Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ (255/869), one of the main names who wrote in the field of balāgha, in the pre-formation period of balāgha science. The documentary analysis (...) method will be used mainly in the research. The determinations of al-Jāḥiẓ on balāgha will be analysed in accord-ance with the parameters, categories and concepts of systematic balāgha. By examining al-Jāḥiẓ’s rhetorical understanding through the filter of systematic balāgha, the share of pre-for-mation period balāgha within systematic balāgha will be revealed. Another contribution of the study would be to reveal the balāgha understanding of al-Jāḥiẓ with its main frames. Ex-amining al-Jāḥiẓ’s concept of balāgha, on the other hand, will facilitate understanding of his unique concepts of balāgha and bayān. Because al-Jāḥiẓ designed a broad communication framework, which he calls bayān, and considered balāgha as a sub-category within this de-sign. Balāgha is the subject of verbal communication in this design.Summary: The formation of a discipline called balāgha passed through several stages. Balāgha as a term, which was in circulation as a qualification of beautiful and convincing words, has attracted the attention of some circles, had been dealt with it in various occasions and some thoughts had been recorded on the subject. These accumulations and records contained a number of basics and principles that formed the core of balāgha science which would later be systematized. Since these recorded cumulative basics and principles cannot be called balāgha science, it is possible to name them as the idea of balāgha. The independent works that emerged during this period were written by poets and literary writers. Religious scholars and linguists also had mentioned rhetorical issues in their works even though they did not write specific books on the topic. It is possible to say that there are two channels from which balāgha science is nourished: The literary criticism channel represented by poets and writers and the other channel which is held by various branches of science, the majority of which are religious sciences.The literary criticism channel is the product of some social and scientific developments in Arab history. When Jāhiliyya (pre-Islamic) poetry became a data source to serve the emerging grammar, an intensive movement of collecting Jāhiliyya poetry has begun. Compiled Jāhiliyya poetry was not only a source for linguists, but also a literary legacy that poets sang and used as a model for their new styles in poetry. Innovations in poetry led to a comparison between the old and the new, and these developments have also brought about the need for certain criteria to be used in literary criticism. Eventually, these critical activities circulated many terms, including the word balāgha.When it comes to religious sciences, balāgha has been a concept used mostly in iʿjāzu’l-Qurʿān issue. The discussions of the miraculous feature of the Qurʿān, which continued on theological grounds, must have aroused the desire to explain the eloquence of verses in concrete exam-ples. Because the scholars of these fields shifted their interest towards the use of linguistic tools. The balāgha channel shaped by the pressures of religious sciences such as kalām, fiqh and tafsīr could be called the balāgha developed by grammar; and the channel that began to take shape with the work of poets and writers can be called the balāgha developed by litera-ture.In the period after the formation of grammar and before the formation of balāgha, although there was not a balāgha science in the present-day sense, it is clear that there was a thought of balāgha. One of the scholars who reflects the idea of balāgha of the pre-establishment pe-riod is Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ. Al-Jāḥiẓ did not address the issue of persuasive and beautiful speech only in his book al-Bayān wa al-tabyīn. In various articles, he talks about the qualities of beautiful and impressive speeches, sometimes under different topics and sometimes under a special title. In his al-Bayān wa al-tabyīn, al-Jāḥiẓ establishes a communication theory called bayān that takes into account all the means of conveying meaning. He divides the means of communication into five, which are word, sign, number, text and posture. The book puts spe-cial emphasis on balāgha, which is one of the means of bayān, and its conditions of conveying meanings. Although the issues discussed in the work do not conform to the norms of the later systematic balāgha, it continues to be an important source in theoretical balāgha studies. Sys-tematic balāgha and al-Jāḥiẓ’s bayān project are different in terms of frame, but they have overlapping points and a piece-whole relationship between them. Bayān, developed by al-Jāḥiẓ’s, addresses the wide range of communication that takes into account including the ges-tures and signs; while balāgha is used to refer to the verbal communications only, which is part of the broader field of communication.In systematic balāgha, it is important to distinguish between balāgha and faṣāḥa terms; the former used to signify the word, the speech and the speaker, and the latter to signify only the word and the speaker. We have noticed that al-Jāḥiẓ uses them interchangeably. Nonetheless, the emphasis on the factor of transmitting messages, when he talks about the clarity of mean-ing on several occasions, shows that he considers the combined words rather than the indi-vidual words, which is the same assertion of systematic balāgha. According to him, the fact that a misarranged sentence is understood by the interlocutor should not mean that the sen-tence itself is capable of transmitting the meaning.The context factor, which is the determinant of systematic balāgha, is also taken into consid-eration in al-Jāḥiẓ’s understanding of balāgha. However, al-Jāḥiẓ generally considered the context together with the length and shortness of the speeches and did not mention the as-pects reflected in the sentence sequence. Although the major concern of al-Jāḥiẓ was the transmission ability of the speech, he also dealt with the expression forms. There are some other terms that he used less frequently like ījāz, iṭnāb, ishāb and kināya. Although some of these words are used in contexts similar to the meanings of today's term, most of them are used in such a context to meet more than one meaning. Ījāz, which is one of these concepts, is the name of expressing the meanings with little word in al-Jāḥiẓ’s usage. The use of terms reflects the types of narrative and figurative usages could not reach a stable point in al-Bayān wa al-tabyīn, because it was not written for the purpose of systematically analysing them. The author, who aims to examine the persuasive and beautiful words in many dimensions, under-took the issue with a view that takes into consideration the orator, and this caused his work to be designed in a way that serves speech making rather than analysing. This consideration prevented the emergence of an analysis system. Al-Jāḥiẓ mostly used balāgha in the context of oral performance. According to him, the written texts and performed sermons are different in style and therefore the balāgha criteria of these two species should be different as well. (shrink)

In the ancient Greek world, the concept of 'miasma,' which becomes permanent and has the potential to grow over time due to evil acts such as murder committed in the city, is a concept frequently referred to in many classical tragedies. To the extent that miasma has a bad connotation due to its nature and is a situation that occurs due to evil actions, it can be considered together with the philosophical problem of evil. In this study, we aim to (...) examine the concept of miasma by focusing on the characters in La Jauría, one of the most prominent films of recent South American cinema, rather than a purely conceptual analysis of the concept. Filmed in the jungles of Colombia and directed by Colombian director Andrés Ramírez Pulido, the 2022 film La Jauría is a psychological drama that focuses on the lives of young people involved in crime. The tragic story of Eliu, the protagonist of the film, which takes place mainly in a prison specially designed to rehabilitate inmates, seems to us to be a very suitable focal point for examining the concepts of miasma, catharsis, and ecstasy, which are frequently referred to in ancient Greek tragedy. To do so, we will first address the various contexts in which miasma has been used historically, considering the flow of events in the movie La Jauría. Then, we will look at the relationship of the concept of miasma with the problem of evil. Finally, we will discuss the possibilities of the concept of purification, which is seen as a kind of antidote to miasma. (shrink)